RAISING THE MAINSAIL

The mainsail is always hoisted first because it is the primary source of power and because a sailboat handles better under mainsail alone than under jib alone. Since the mainsail is attached to the mast and boom, it is also easier to control than the jib. Whether you raise the mainsail at the dock or while motoring out of the harbor, the bow of the boat should point into the wind. Check all shackles to be sure they are secure. Many are of the twist-locking type with a little groove for the pin. Make sure the pin is in the proper place. Keep enough slack in the mainsheet so that the sail will be able to be fully hoisted. It is best to keep passengers and extra crew out of the way of the boom, which will swing radically during the hoisting procedure. Keep the mainsheet clear of winches, cleats, and the stem of the boat. Be sure to stay low so you don't get hit in the head as the boom swings while the main is raised.
PREPARATION
1. Position one person at the mast at the point where the sail enters the luff groove.
2. A second crew member should be at the end of the halyard, prepared to raise the sail.
3. A third crew member (if there is one) should keep the end of the boom from jumping around by controlling the mainsheet as the sail is being raised.
4. Crew members in the cockpit should slacken the topping lift, the mainsheet, and the boom vang. Some boats use the main halyard for the boom lift, so someone will have to hold the boom while the sail is being raised.
5. Don't begin hoisting until the bow is aimed directly into the wind (except on a smaller boat).
PROCEDURE
When the skipper orders, "Hoist the mainsail":
1. Wrap the main halyard once around the winch.
2. Release sail ties.
3. Pull the halyard to start raising the sail.
4. Feed the luff of the sail into the slot to keep it from jamming. If it jams, lower the sail a few inches and hoist again.
5. The crew member on the halyard will keep pulling by hand until the sail reaches the top of the mast. Use the winch to raise the halyard if the sail gets too heavy to hoist.
FINISHING OFF
1. When the sail is at the top of the mast, take an additional wrap or two around the winch.
2. Place the winch handle in the winch and turn slowly until one vertical wrinkle appears in the luff of the sail, indicating proper tension. This wrinkle will smooth out when the boat is sailing.
3. Coil and stow the halyard.
The jib may be hoisted now, or hoisting may be delayed until the boat is in open water if you leave the dock by power.

USING WINCHES

An important piece of gear on boats larger than about 20 feet is the winch, a drum turned by a handle that gives a mechanical advantage when hoisting sails and trimming sheets. All winches work the same way:
1. Before there is a strain on the line, make one or two clockwise loops around the drum.
2. Pull on the line hand-over-hand until the strain is heavy.
3. Make one or two more clockwise loops depending on load.
4. Insert the winch handle. With one hand, rotate the handle. With the other hand, pull on the line. (In some boats, the winch handle is permanently installed. When sailing on larger boats with very heavy strains, it may be necessary to have one crew member turn the handle with two hands while another crew member "tails," or pulls on the line.) Keep winching the line in until the halyard is hoisted or the sheet is trimmed properly. Be careful not to let fingers, hair, clothing, watch straps, etc., catch in the turns.
5. Once the line is cleated, remove the winch handle from the winch. If it's left in, it may trip somebody or fall out and be lost overboard.

RIGGING CHECKLIST

The mainsail:
1. Remove sailcover.
2. Attach outhaul to the clew.
3. Attach tack pin to tack.
4. Attach main halyard to head of sail.
5. Uncoil mainsheet.
6. Loosen boom vang.

The jib:
1. Attach jib to headstay.
2. Attach jib halyard to head.
3. Attach jib sheets to clew of jib with bowlines.
4. Lead jib sheets according to your particular boat's design, either inboard or outboard of shrouds.
5. Lead jib sheets to winches. 6. Tie the jib to lifelines to keep deck clear and secure head of jib to lifelines or bow pulpit.

ATTACHING THE SAILS

THE MAINSAIL
The mainsail may be furled (folded or rolled) on the boom, secured with sail ties, and protected with a sail cover, or it may be stored off the boom, folded and kept in a sail bag below. Newer Mylar and Kevlar sails are best rolled when lowered. This keeps the material from cracking. In either case, there are several steps necessary to prepare the mainsail for hoisting.
If the sail is off the boom, it will be taken out of the bag and laid along the deck. The crew will feed the clew into the groove in the boom. The sail will then be slid onto the boom until the tack is at the gooseneck (the fitting that attaches the boom to the mast). The tack pin (the pin that holds the tack of the sail to the boom) will be attached, as well as the outhaul (the line that attaches to the clew and is used to tension the foot of the sail).
If the mainsail is stored on the boom, the crew simply has to remove the sail cover, feed the luff into the groove of the mast, and attach the main halyard shackle to the head of the sail. Ensure that the battens are in the batten pockets, flexible end first. The crew should take up any slack from the halyard.

THE JIB
The jib is always stored in a sail bag when not in use. To set the jib, remove it from the sail bag and spread it on the foredeck. Locate the head, tack, and clew of the sail, the head being the narrowest angle of the three corners. Many sailmakers will mark the corners of the sail with head, tack, and clew. If this has not been done, it is easy to do with an indelible marker and provides an easy reference.
The luff of the jib will usually be hanked (with small brass or plastic snap fittings on the jib) onto the headstay and the jib sheets will be attached to the clew of the jib with bowline knots. If the headstay has a groove, then the jib will have a bolt rope (rope sewn into the luff of the sail) instead of hanks. In that case, insert the bolt rope into the prefeeder (a device which makes raising sails easier) and then into the groove. The next step is to lash the jib to the side of the boat farthest from the dock. This will keep the sail out of the way while you leave the dock. To keep the jib from creeping up the forestay before it is time to hoist the sail, either tie a line around the sail and halyard or undo the top hank of the sail and attach it to the lifeline.

SAILING CHECKLIST

It is now time for your first sail. Use the following checklist to ensure that all required equipment is on board and that the boat is properly prepared to sail.

1. Check the weather report.
2. Open hatches and ventilate the boat. Check below. If gasoline, stove fuel, or a holding tank for the head (toilet) are on board, the crew must check to make sure there are no fumes present before any flames are lit or the engine is started.
3. Check bilges and pump. The floor boards in the bottom of the boat should be lifted. They cover the bilge (the lowest part of the interior of the boat), and water will collect there from the natural "sweating" of a closed boat or from rain. Water will also seep in around loose keel bolts (the bolts that attach the keel to the boat). Use the bilge pump or a bucket and sponge to empty the bilge so the water won't slosh around while you're sailing.
4. Make sure there is one PFD (personal flotation device or life jacket) for each person aboard, plus one Type IV.
5. Stow all gear in a safe, accessible place. Equipment must be close at hand in case of an emergency. Loose gear may roll around and injure someone during the sail. Be sure gear is stowed securely so it doesn't fall into the cabin when the boat heels over.
6. Make sure that the horn or whistle is operational.
7. Plan the day's sail and course.
8. Check the rigging and sails. Are the halyards clear and the sails ready to go up? Are the battens in their pockets? It is important that all lines be uncoiled and ready so they do not foul up in a block while you are attempting to leave the dock.
9. Assign specific jobs to each member of the crew and spell out the goal for the day.

BOARDING

Boarding a sailboat for the first time is an exciting experience for everyone, but it can be traumatic. This is normal. Be careful when boarding a boat; even experienced sailors have fallen in the water. Always wear nonskid deck shoes for better footing, and also to protect the deck. Wearing socks with your shoes will increase traction.Board the boat quickly. To steady yourself, hold onto a shroud or rail while stepping on board, or hold the steadying hand of a person already on the boat. Don't step from dock to deck with an armful of gear. Pass your gear across to the boat first. Step into the boat as close to the middle (between bow and stem) as you can. On smaller boats it is imperative to step into the middle of the boat while keeping your weight low. It often helps to put the centerboard down to give the boat added stability while you're loading. Keep the deck clear by stowing your gear as it is passed on board. Most importantly, relax when boarding, but don't take unnecessary chances. Falling into the water between the boat and dock can be dangerous because a wave might push the boat back against the dock, causing you injury.
Each crew member should have a specific place to sit when the boat is leaving the dock and when it's under way. Make sure the helmsman has room to move the tiller, and always keep your head low to avoid being hit by the boom. Normally, most of the crew weight is kept at the beamiest (widest) part of the boat.
The helmsman has to sit near the tiller. He or she should try to sit so the hiking stick is at a 90 degree angle to the tiller. On a boat with a wheel, it is best to stand while steering. This gives the helmsman a better view of the sails and the boat's heading.
Run through all the motions of boarding on land first, then practice from a dock to get the feeling of the boat in the water.

ALCOHOL AND DRUG ABUSE

The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) estimates that between 37 and 76 percent of all boating fatalities can be traced to operators with measurable levels of alcohol in their blood. Moreover, studies show that, compared with sober operators, legally drunk boaters are ten times more likely to be fatally injured. Alcohol consumption while boating is problematic for several reasons:

• Boating exposes the operator to natural stressors (e.g., noise, shock, extreme temperatures, vibration, sun, glare, and wind) that increase fatigue, decrease dexterity, and interfere with judgment. Alcohol exacerbates these effects.
• Complex reaction time (that associated with more difficult tasks or divided attention) is increased with moderate alcohol use. In tasks requiring vigilance (i.e., prolonged periods of task concentration or attention to task) accuracy decreases and the time required for correct response increases with blood alcohol content.
• Alcohol impairs the psychomotor performance of tasks that are vital to safe boat operation, such as steering and signal anticipation. Visual acuity is reduced in low contrast situations such as twilight and night conditions.
• Fatigue increases with alcohol consumption.
• Intellectual functions are sensitive to the effects of alcohol. Verbal performance, problem solving, and short-term memory are adversely affected by alcohol.
• Balance is adversely affected by alcohol, increasing the likelihood of falling from the boat.
• Judgment is adversely affected by alcohol. Persons under the influence appear to be willing to take greater risks and to underestimate their degree of impairment.
• These are all excellent reasons to refrain from consumption of alcohol while boating. Nonetheless, the American Red Cross National Boating Survey reveals that 29 percent of all boaters reported using alcohol during typical outings, and the percentages for operators of cabin cruisers and cabin sailboats were higher, 44.6 percent and 41.6 percent, respectively.
• Here are some ideas to reduce alcoholrelated risks:
• Refrain from alcohol consumption until safely tied up at the end of the day. This is the best strategy.
• Limit consumption to one drink or less per hour.
• Eat before and while drinking.
• Alternate between drinking alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages. Use nonalcoholic beverages to quench thirst before drinking alcoholic beverages.
• Don't invite people who characteristically drink to excess.
• Don't bring large amounts of alcohol.
• Don't stop at waterside drinking establishments.

Operating a vessel while intoxicated became a specific federal offense effective January 13, 1988. The final rule set standards for determining when an individual is intoxicated. If the blood alcohol content (BAC) is 0.10 percent (0.08 percent in some states) or greater for operators of recreational vessels being used solely for pleasure, violators are subject to a civil penalty not to exceed $1,000 or a criminal penalty not to exceed $5,000, one-year imprisonment, or both. State laws may have other penalties, such as forfeiture of vessel (or motor vehicle) operating privileges. Most states have an implied consent law and refusal to take a blood alcohol test can be used against the boater.
A 160-pound person who consumes five drinks (twelve ounces of beer equals five ounces of wine equals one ounce of eighty-proof liquor equals one drink) in a two-hour period will raise his or her BAC to 0.1 percent.
Intoxicating drugs may not show up in a sobriety test designed for alcohol. However, many jurisdictions give law-enforcement officers great latitude in determining the probability of drug use by operators. If behavior and/or other outward signs indicate that drugs may be present, the officer may charge the operator with boating under the influence (BUI).

RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE SKIPPER AND CREW

The terms helmsman and skipper are often used interchangeably; however, they are not the same. The skipper (whether on deck, at the wheel, or taking a nap below) is the person responsible for the safe operation of the vessel. The helmsman is the person steering the boat, a role which may be performed by any member of the crew, including the skipper. The crew (including the helmsman) is responsible for assisting the skipper in the safe operation of the boat. Traditionally, the captain of a vessel is responsible for the safety of the vessel and all persons aboard. This is particularly true on commercial vessels. However, on a recreational boat the operator (skipper) assumes many of the responsibilities of the captain. If the boat is boarded by federal, state, or local law-enforcement personnel, the skipper must answer for the condition and conduct of the boat. For example, the skipper is responsible for ensuring that:

• The boat carries all required safety equipment.
• Proper lights are displayed at night.
• Correct sound signals are used when required.
• No-wake zones and restricted areas are correctly observed.
• The boat isn't operated in a manner that will endanger life, limb, or property of any person. Negligent or grossly negligent operations could include: operating in a hazardous manner, operating in a designated swimming area, excessive speed in the vicinity of other boats, hazardous waterskiing practices, overloading, overpowering, boating in hazardous weather, bowriding (or riding on a gunwale or transom), and operating under the influence of alcohol or drugs.
• The boat complies with the rules for preventing collisions.
• Proper registration numbers are displayed and the certificate of number is carried on board.
• An accident report is prepared if the boat or persons aboard are involved in an accident that involves a fatality (or disappearance), injuries requiring more than first aid, more than $500 damage to vessels or property, or the complete loss of a vessel.
• Assistance is rendered to persons overboard and to other boats needing help. (The operator or any person in charge of a vessel is obligated by law to provide assistance that can be safely provided to any individual in danger at sea. The Good Samaritan rule in the Federal Boat Safety Act of 1971 will protect you from liability if you act reasonably and prudently. The operator is subject to a fine and/or imprisonment for failure to do so.)
• Trash, oil, and other pollutants are properly disposed of, and that permanently installed marine toilets comply with United States Coast Guard (USCG) regulations.
• The owner is responsible along with the operator if an injury occurs or if the boat causes damage.

The above list is illustrative, not exhaustive. It identifies some of the specific required actions and responsibilities of the skipper. Being a good skipper, however, entails more than satisfying the specific requirements listed above. It is also a matter of attitude. To a degree unmatched by many other forms of transportation, passengers and other boaters are dependent upon the skipper's skills and responsible approach to boating. In boating, responsibility and fun go hand in hand.
To ensure the safety of the crew, the skipper must organize the operation of the boat so that tasks will be performed efficiently. This means delegating jobs according to the abilities of different crew members.
As a skipper, be tactful when giving an order; as a crew member, be willing and able to obey all reasonable commands. The great General "Stonewall" Jackson once said, "Obedience to orders, instant and unhesitating, is not only the life blood of armies and navies, but the security of states." This statement applies perfectly on sailboats.
Give orders in a friendly but firm tone of voice. Never shout: it only makes the crew nervous and leads to mistakes. Explain commands to inexperienced crew members in advance so they feel more relaxed. Give commands in exact terms. For example, ask for sails to be trimmed in four inches instead of "a little." By putting commands in precise terms, you leave no doubt as to what you want. The best skippers are those who ask the advice of the rest of the crew. However, in times of quick action, the crew must obey commands immediately and ask questions later.
One of the greatest yachtsmen of all time, Ted Turner, establishes the role of each crew member when that person steps on board the yacht. He clearly defines the job of every person on the boat. In case there is an emergency or an important maneuver, each person is assigned a specific task. Turner has earned great loyalty from his crews over the years because they have faith in his ability to make clear decisions in the heat of baffle. His secret? Taking good advice when asked for, assigning specific duties, and motivating the crew by giving everyone on board a reason to excel.
This book will introduce and develop the skills you must have to be a good skipper and crew member. Whether you are tending docking lines, trimming the mainsail, or maneuvering through a crowded marina, each task undertaken and learned in this course will make you a better and safer sailor. More on the duties and responsibilities of a skipper will be discussed in Part Six, Basic Coastal Cruising.

THE BASIC BOAT

Learning to sail is rather like going to a foreign country. Everyone seems to speak a different language. But don't let this trouble you, for the language will soon become familiar. Once you cast off from shore, your boat becomes a self-contained world. To function within that world you need to learn the parts of your boat and their uses. Go over them often so there is no question in your mind.Keel - a weighted fin that, when attached to the bottom of a sailboat, keeps the boat from slipping sideways in the water and allows it to sail upwind.
Centerboard - A sailboat without a keel may have a centerboard. A centerboard is a wooden or metal fin housed in a centerboard trunk that serves the same purpose as a keel. It can be lowered to overcome the boat's lateral motion.
Beam - the maximum width of the hull.
Deck - the horizontal upper surface of the boat.
Stern - the back of the boat.
Bow - the front of the boat.
Aft, after - toward the stern.
Forward - toward the bow.
Windward - toward the wind.
Leeward - away from the wind.
Aloft - overhead.
Rudder - the fin at the stern of the boat used for steering.
Tiller - the wooden or metal steering arm attached to the rudder. It is used as a lever to turn the rudder.
Tiller extension - a wooden or metal pivoting extension attached to the tiller. It is usually found in dinghies and enables the skipper to steer accurately while hiking out.
Wheel - On larger boats the wheel replaces the tiller and is used to turn the rudder.
Mast - the vertical pole or spar that supports the sails and boom. The top of the mast is called the masthead.
Boom - the horizontal spar which is attached to the mast to support the bottom part of the mainsail.
Hiking out - leaning the weight of the crew over the windward side to help keep the boat on an "even keel."
Port - the left side of the boat as you face forward.
Starboard - the right side of the boat as you face forward.
Mainsheet - the line used to make the major adjustments to the trim of the mainsail.
Boom vang - an adjustable tackle or rod that prevents the boom from lifting. A rodtype boom vang also keeps the boom from dropping on deck.
Lifelines - plastic-coated wires enclosing the deck to keep the crew from falling overboard. Lifelines are suspended from metal supports, called pulpits and stanchions.
Traveler - a slide, running across the boat, to which the mainsheet is led. The crew can change the trim of the mainsail by adjusting the slide position.
Topsides - the sides of the hull above the waterline.
The standing rigging is a collection of wires that supports the mast. On more sophisticated boats, the standing rigging is more complex and can be adjusted to optimize a sail's performance. The basic standing rigging consists of:
Headstay - a wire that runs from the top of the mast (or near the masthead) to the bow and onto which the jib is attached. It supports the mast, preventing it from falling backwards.
Backstay - a wire that runs from the top of the mast to the stern and supports the mast.
Shrouds (sidestays) - wires that run from the masthead (or near the masthead) to the sides of the boat to support the mast and prevent it from swaying.

Boat parts

Sails - are the power supply of the sailboat. They are most frequently made of Dacron, a synthetic fiber, used because of its resistance to stretching. Other materials such as nylon, Mylar, and Kevlar are also used in sailmaking. Types of sails are:
Mainsail - the primary and most easily controlled source of sail power, attached along the front edge to the mast and along the bottom edge to the boom.
Spinnaker (chute) - a balloonlike sail, often colored, used when running with the wind.
Jib (headsail) - the sail set forward of the mainsail and attached to the forestay using jib hanks.
Genoa (headsail) - a large jib with an overlap aft of the mast.
Each part of a sail has a name:
Head - the top corner of the sail.
Tack - the forward lower corner of a sail.
Clew - the back lower comer of a sail.
Luff - the leading edge (front) of a sail. The luff of the mainsail attaches to the mast, and the luff of the jib attaches to the forestay.
Foot - the bottom edge of a sail. The foot of the mainsail attaches to the boom. The foot of the jib is unattached and consequently more difficult to control.
Leech - the trailing (back) edge of a sail.
Battens - support sticks held in pockets to keep the leech from flapping and to add support to the sail.
Draft - the fullness or roundness of a sail.
The running rigging consists of ropes (called lines) that pull the sails up and adjust the sails' shape. Unlike the standing rigging, the running rigging is not stationary. When sailors speak of "trimming" sails to find the most efficient shape, they mean that the sheets are being let out (eased) or pulled in (trimmed).
The running rigging includes:
Halyards - lines used to raise (hoist) sails and hold them up.
Mainsheet - a line used to trim the mainsail; it is led through a series of blocks to form a block and tackle.
Jib sheets - two lines, one on each side of the boat, to trim the jib.

Sail parts

The topping lift, which prevents the boom from dropping on deck, is part of the running rigging. The downhaul, outhaul, and cunninghamare also running rigging. We will discuss them later.
Halyards attach to the top or head of a sail. Halyards run through the top of the mast by means of a sheave or block (pulley) and then down to the bottom of the mast. A halyard can be internal, inside the mast, or external, outside the mast. The main halyard raises the mainsail and the jib halyard raises the jib.
Halyards sometimes terminate at the base of the mast, requiring the crew to be at the mast when hoisting and lowering the sails. A better system is to have the halyard lead back to the cockpit through turning blocks and padeyes (blocks and eyes through which a line is threaded to give it a clear, safe run). The sail can then be hoisted by the crew without leaving the safety of the cockpit.
Most boats have winches on the mast or on the deck to aid in the hoisting of sails. Winches pull on lines mechanically and safely. They consist of a drum that rotates only in a clockwise direction around which the line is wrapped and a crank handle to rotate the drum. Winches are discussed in the Skills Afloat section of this part.
Sheets control the shape of the sail and sail trim or position of the sail. The mainsheet and jib sheets are quite different from one another. The mainsheet is a multiplepart block and tackle used to increase an individual's pulling power. By giving a sheet a 2:1, 4:1, or 8:1 advantage, the device lets you trim your sails more easily. This is particularly helpful in strong winds.
The jib sheet consists of two lines connected to the clew of the jib that lead along each side of the boat to the cockpit. Although the actual leading of the jib sheets varies from boat to boat, the system illustrated in this book is among the most common.
The jib sheets are attached to the clew of the jib with a knot called a bowline. This knot provides a temporary loop that allows the jib sheet to be securely attached to the sail. The key feature of the bowline, like any properly tied knot, is that it unties remarkably easily, even after being under strain for days at a time.
The other end of the jib sheet leads through a block (a pulley), or series of blocks, around a winch, to a cam cleat or deck cleat (a wooden, plastic, or metal fitting used to secure lines). The crew controls the sail trim by pulling in or letting out the sheet.
Since the jib sheets are led along both the windward (toward the wind) and the leeward (away from the wind) sides of the boat, they are referred to as the leeward and windward sheets. The leeward sheet is led along the leeward side of the boat. It is the working sheet and will be taut when the jib is in use; the windward sheet is the nonworking or "lazy" sheet and will be slack. Of course, as the side of the boat the wind is blowing from changes, reference to the windward or leeward jib sheets also changes.
At the tail end of the jib sheet will be a figure eight or stopper knot. The knot will keep the line from pulling through the turning block or fairlead.
The topping lift, or boom lift, holds the boom off the deck when the sail is not being used. If the mainsail is lowered without the topping lift attached, the boom will fall to the deck.
A topping lift should be adjustable, either from the cabin top or from the boom itself. One of the simplest types of topping lift attaches to the backstay and consists of a few feet of wire with a clip or shackle on the end. Although this type of topping lift serves the basic purpose of support for the boom, it is difficult to use and almost impossible to adjust or disconnect once the sail has been raised.